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THE FUTURE OF TELEVISION
FROM A SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE, AND ACCORDING TO ITS DEVELOPMENT, WHICH COULD BE THE POSSIBLE CHANGES OF TELEVISION AGAINST THE USES AND EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS AND THE INTERNET?
-
Fantasies help us undermine what ‘consciousness’ was in a particular
age,
what thoughts were possible, and what thoughts could not be entertained yet
or any more -
CAROLYN MARVIN
-Adapting
to a dominated position implies a form of acceptance of domination -
First
of all I think it is important to consider that electronic media are tools
for transmitting information (data), these tools are part of a major process:
communication. We have to bear in mind as well that the process of communication
I am refering to, not necessarily involves the active participation of the
receiver. In a mass society the active role is fundamentally played by the
owners of the media, that are the suppliers of a multiplicity of forms of
symbolic content which fulfil the social values that feed the dynamics of
the capitalist system. This model over the last century has been characterized
for taking a one way communication structure and for aiming to a vast and
homogenized auditorium, whose principal role is the consumption of goods and
information. At the same we have to regard the fact that the evolution of
technology responds to the necessities of society to improve the conditions
of living (not necessarily of all individuals) Science and the institutions
that foster its development play an important role for the production practices
that are controlled by a defined segment of society undergoing a continual
struggle of ownership and domination.
Over the last century, Electronic media took a predominant position within
society. Due to the complexity generated by its introduction to most social
processes, in order to understand its impact on human behavior it would
be necessary to summarize a vast amount of information and to view it from
different schools of thought, social and political positions and historical
perspectives. That is a task that I can not accomplish in this brief research
work. On the other hand it is important to acknowledge that the
specialization within the sciences sets rigid parameters of interpretation
of human phenomena. And if we are taking a position in the social sciences
to analyze it, we are subsecuently denying other possibilities of interpretation
whose authenticity or objectivity would rely on rather different methodologies
or procedures of explanation; for example, the case of the natural sciences.
Putting aside some hybrids that try to combine elements of both
fields or even to share with views that have been segregated historically
as 'beliefs'; whilst I was searching for information about the development
of technology I found some interesting theories that address this situation.
For instance The scholar’s David Noble's thesis is based in the connection
of religion and technology. He claims the human existential need of transcendence
goes beyond the so-called rational world. And that technology has become a
myth which the western world has based in the Christian project of redemption.
And on the other side the work of Carolyn Marvin approaches
the uses of technologies from a perspective that stresses the importance of
the discovery and uses of electricity, and the way the inventions resulted of
the early experiments which affected the organization of social entities already
existent and lead to the creation of technologies like the telegraph and the
telephone. Considers the confrontation of groups and habits and the effect
of these on the atavistic behavior and class values. She argues that “the early history of electronic
media is less the evolution of technical efficiencies in communication than
a series of arenas for negotiating issues crucial to the conduct of social
life” (MARVIN, 1988:4)
Although
these arguments are interesting and revealing of other aspects of the electronic
media, they require a different kind of approach, and a wider research.
This interpretation and research work is just a very small part of
the western social tradition which is rooted in old historical processes that
require deeper and much more dedicated analysis to cover it and to predict
the future of the electronic media.
My purpose is to concentrate essentially on Television as a representative
technology of the state of convergence and change, and from then on, firstly
my intention is to focus on some of the social and historical events that
fostered its development with the purpose to establish as a parameter some
of its features as a communication technology within a historical context.
In second place I will try to bring up some of the social economic and political
factors that influence the existence and the uses of television in a technological
convergence context. And as conclusion, I will reflect briefly over some aspects
of its possible evolution against the development of the Internet and try
to sumarize some of its peculiarities for its immediate future.
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TELEVISION - The system
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Television
has to be considered as a technology that has taken different cultural forms
and whose roll in society has been predominant in institutional communication
relationships. Be they economical, political, social, etc; television has
influenced or modified their structure. For many, this medium is the main
cause of partial and significant changes in society since the expansion and
growth of broadcasting. Some consider that its effects reflect the actual
state and ideological condition of various segments of society .
Although, Raymond Williams points out, that we have to be careful,
because the notion of effect we refer to may not respond to the reality we
are trying to interpret. (WILLIAMS, 1974). Television he mentions, may be
the cause or the result of other causes. In a practical an historical way
the technological transition of one stage to the other, for instance from
a system of production like Fordism; and the political implications that foster
the development of such system, are bound to have different degrees of influence
on the members of the community, and over the processes of creation and invention
derived by the needs of such community.
For example; the needs of the leading groups: in this particular case
the communication industries. As Schawrts mentions; “The financial and
scientific interest of these industries dictate a system which supports more
advanced products and therefore more commercially desirable versions of their
existing technology” (SCHWARTZ, 1973:80). Nevertheless television technology
was the result of intricate and complex social relationships fundamentally
a by-product of organization methods shaped by individual and collective efforts
and social needs.
The
development of mass communication was the direct result of the change and evolution
of commercial systems inherent to the expansion of society. Control and contact
were the main motivations. (WILLIAMS, 1974). Naturally the centralization
of the political power was interested on the development of such technologies
because these would fulfil that essential need of control and institutional organization.
The
technical evolution of modern society and the psychological
changes in social consciousness along with cultural and social values
were fundamentally the result of the first and second world wars. The impact
of these events encouraged a new perception of reality, underlined the parameters
of the capitalist system and specially stressed the new needs of the emerging
society; based in mobility and selfsufficientness (ironically based on the
dependency to electronic and mechanical apparatuses).
On the other hand economic factors of production (the projects of each
corporation) had direct influence in the ways technology would be produced
and applied. In a general way the processes of research and development accelerated
the growth and evolution of electronic technologies. (HAYS, 1972) The production
for the masses became an imperative in order to satisfy the growing society,
eager to make use of all new kind of devises that would simplify life, following
the new domestic philosophy spread by the “old” media.
During
the early stages of broadcasting, this one was considered very basic and primitive.
“ When the question of content
was raised, it was resolved, in the main, parasitically…It is not that
the supply of broadcasting facilities preceded the demand; it is that the
means of communication preceded their content.” (WILLIAMS, 1974: 25). Broadcasting needed the impulse and intention
of manufacturers of the reception devices. At the same time there was “a contradiction of centralized
transmission and privatized reception” (WILLIAMS, 1974) and other
issues related to licensing, sponsorship, advertisement and control. The development of television as a mass communication medium
was intimately connected with the interest of the leading political groups
and in consequence determined by the social project supported by the leaders of such groups. Technology emerged as
a private affaire and the technical structure was initially part of a capitalist
mechanism (BURNS, 1977). The need of state control and ownership brought along
some contradictions and underlined the contrast between public service and
commercial purposes. Public service was the reflection of a process of modernization
for some state projects, and during the 60s broadcasting became a major issue
for the interest of the nations. Television had already developed a definite
character, according to Raymond Williams “it had to be seen at several
levels: as the making of programs for profit in a known market; as a channel
for advertising; and as a cultural an political form directly dependent on
the norms of a capitalist society, selling both consumer goods and a way of
life” (WILLIAMS, 1974: 41)
It
is important to acknowledge that from a global perspective, the postwar development
of companies of large scale, and the power of the market had already generated
a minority class that owned the mediums. What it represented was the formation
of groups, definite entities with an ideology that backed up its intentions
and procedures of survival and reproduction. Simultaneously the different projects
of all nations played an important role because the historical nature of its
development influenced the adaptation of technologies to suit the needs of
the institutions. In all leading
developed countries from the very beginning television as a communication
institution became a key issue in its policies and the main propaganda tool
. But specially during the stage of cold war the ideological struggle of the
socialism and capitalism, television shacked the interest of the governments,
and stimulated a stage of regulation and reflection over the ownership of
the means of communication, but fundamentally over the production of messages.
During
the 70s in the industrial areas the effects of the power of monopolies over
the market were reflected into the ways of organization of communities and
individuals. Some viewed in these, signs of the ideological indoctrination
and manipulation exercised by television. For example Atkinson claimed that the
capitalist system celebrates in TV ads a fantasy world to which is necessary
to aspire in order to belong. Portrays such things as a nuclear family, male
female separation of roles, consumption and acquisition as a social duty,
specialisation and competition as moral imperatives. And all of these promote
the segmentation of activities shown as desirable. Work, Home, Leisure are
separate areas, and human relationships are reduced to performances (ATKINSON, 1977)
The
globalization model of the traditional industries was imitated effectively
by the new growing information industry. The control of the media by large
corporations during the 70s lead to the evolution and development of monopolies.
“For technical and economic reasons it was impossible for most individual
citizens to own radio or television stations” (BARBROOK, 1995 :134).
Which from a social perspective was against all (already minimized) possibility
of freedom of speech and public participation, but overall
stressed the contradictions of the democratic ruling of the capitalist system. This was a stage of divergence between the promise of individual
freedom and the hegemony exercised by corporations. (BARBROOK, 1995). The contradiction was a natural
result of the evolution of the information
society based on the ownership
of the means of production backed up by the relationship between government
and media owners. Television as a technological invention was the desired
result of research an invention fostered by different institutions public
and private. But the historical transition in which the final and usable product
was functioning determined its predominant social use: Commercial.
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SECOND
PART
A stage of change?
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The
contemporary organization of society relies on economic principles that are
secured by major leading forces engineered by the state. The media are presented as organisms or
institutions that offer a variety of products and services to the community,
that in coalition with the state produce and reproduce the system. (O'SHAUGHNESSY,
1990) The interaction of the
auditorium with media over the years has generated a definite structure. But
the new technological developments of computers, cable and telephony are bringing
changes that are reshaping the traditional modes, "these changes are
not random and inevitable, but are part in the ownership and control of major
sections of the national and international economy" (HUGES, 1990:166).
At
the same time It is important to acknowledge that the globalization process
is overtaking the political discourse and social planning is being developed
considering these new structures of communication (MIRABITO, 1990). Technical communication procedures via
satellite, the implementation of a much more effective cable systems, the
merging of the world wide web and the convergence of old media with new technologies,
have allowed the development of a new logic organization that has not accomplished
its final configuration. All these transformations within society mechanics
emphasize the necessity of reflecting about what will be their impact over
the future years and what will be the direct and indirect consequences of
these changes for the different communities, specially to those that are active
part of the process of consumption. The idea of convergence and the combination
of electronic media with the new capabilities of communication appear to be
generally a futuristic vision of the corporate interest whose main aim is
to provide users with the advantages of information and to spread the vision
of the magic of technology, spectacle and entertainment. (JACOBSON,
1996)
It would be ambitious and vain to attempt to answer all the questions that arise from the clash of media and the new computer systems of information intercourse. Because we are passing through a stage of uncertainty and speculation influenced by the agreements in the economic and corporate world. Although it is important to keep in mind that questions that relate to the effects these media have over isolated individuals or communities, underline the state of organizated change that society is undergoing in different aspects of its structure directly linked to a political agenda. From a socialist perspective constrained within the parameters of the traditional institutions; some of the most important issues raised by these late technical developments and the processes of change generated are those related to the possibilities of social participation and the generation of a different way communication structure. In addition, one of the core questions in this trend would be How beneficial are these innovations to a mechanic of social participation that has not changed its exploitation structure? According to Jaques Ellul quoted by Dizard, "The introduction of any technological change exacts a price. Each innovation adds something on one hand and subtracts something else on the other. In any event such innovations have unforeseeable effects" (DIZARD, 1994: 170). For instance, Thomas Baldwin mentions that there is the risk that the growth and expansion of communication networks may just benefit technologically developed areas. (BALDWIN, 1996) Which would spawn new subcultures, create gaps between communities and would generate a transformation of cultural values, leaving aside those sectors of the society that lack of access to the “benefits” of technology. Nevertheless, we could be certain that that has already happened during the evolution of the traditional media, particularly in third world cowntries.
What seems to be the corner stone in the beginning of the new century is that a cable-wave integration of individuals by specific shared systems of values is surpassing geographical limits. And that the capabilities of ideology distribution are of major scale. I suppose that not only we have to ask questions about indoctrination and nationalism and its limits, but about technological discrimination. (Are not they quite similar? Or at least rooted in a common source?) From a biological position perhaps we could ask if the laws of survival are, or not being taken to the extremes by the distribution of technology and information above the economic distribution. For instance Jacobson mentions that contrary to what the telecommunications predict; historically the changes that can occur with the introduction of new ways of communication will be evolutionary instead of revolutionary. Mainly for the traditional resistance to change by some sectors, and because the iniquities and the lack of resources from others. (Jacobson, 1996) The common access to the media technology is and will remain reserved just to those that can cope with the change. To those that have the chance to learn the dynamics of the technology and the languages, codes, methods and procedures of communication. But fundamentally to those that can afford to pay for the hardware, software and the education required to use it.
As a result of the massive use of communication technologies especially of those related to the information distribution networks, according to some scholars there has been already an evolution from a mass society to a segmented society, which is diversified and specialised. Manuel Castells mentions that because of the diversity of media and the possibility of targeting the audience, now the message is the media, which means that the characteristics of the message will shape the characteristics of the medium, a classical example is the television channel MTV. (CASTELLS, 2000). Thomas Baldwin claims that ‘the networks make available the products of a diversity of information suppliers, facilitate interaction with these materials, and offer live and stored forms of communication services so that individuals can create their own communication environment’ -(BALDWIN, ET AL 1996: 15). In this fashion it is important to note that the proliferation of authoring tools combined with the communication platforms displayed by the web is allowing users to create 'end user' products, to construct interaction spaces and virtual communities. But fundamentally allows them to participate as individuals or members of active communities that have the opportunity beyond selecting and interpreting, in some circumstances, to modify the contents and generate a new form of conten. One of the essential facts that this process of converging technology stresses is the possibility of creating new alternatives for the uses of such. According to Schulze, "from an evolutionary perspective of the history of information, technology revolution provides just the type of quantum leap in the improvement of mans capacity for learning and adaptation that he needs for his survival" (SCHULZE, 1996:37). From this perspective we have to consider technology as a tool that can trigger our learning skills to improve the social conditions of every day life, and to reformulate the way technology is used, but what is much more important according to these visions is to think about the ways technology can be used effectively for practical purposes that surpass the political discourse. A practice that can represent or can help to the participation of the individual within the public or private environments in all fields. Allowing us to question to what extent these alternative or new practices of communication will continue as a form of legitimization of the very system, or will become a revolutionary possibility of social transformation.
All
the technological developments and the advertisement world processes encouraged
by industry have had a powerful impact in all social aspects of human relationships.
The integration of society to the uses of graphical and audiovisual interfaces
in a computer mediated process has reached those human activities that would
appear insignificant, and has touched the core of human needs of expression
and creative out put. It does not come as a surprise that the
new generation of young users of technology has developed an extraordinary
familiarity with electronic interfaces and virtual platforms; principally
due to the use of computers as a consequence of the long legacy of television
and its variables: video games, video recorders, video cameras, etc. The main point
of this transition basically is reduced to the replacement of those technologies
that extend the image-making potential from analogue representations to digital production.
(DOVEY, 1996). But at same time
we have to note that on one side we have this technological structure
and on the other a structure for the production of content that underlines
“the role of the media as they go about their task of collecting, constructing
and disseminating information” (LORIMER, 1994:220) and principally legitimating
and justifying the progress, expansion and capitalization
of international corporations.
Rather than being pessimistic, I believe that from a realistic point
of view all the improvements and possible revolutionary changes seem doomed
to fail or to fall within the system. “Corporate
ideology of the information age pervades our lives” (JACOBSON,
1996:152).
Many
issues that go beyond the mere practical and functional objectives are inevitably
raised when we try to understand the uses allowed by the convergence of technologies.
For instance, we have to acknowledge firstly, that any possible use of technologies
is constrained within the limits of the social institutions that secure the
State, and within the social and cultural values of the society these
belong to and to the environment these move in, and we have to recognize its
position in a historical tradition that is shaped by the purposes they were
created for.
Although some scholars believe that the"Postmodern society is radically decentered and thoroughly disseminated" and that "As a result of this dispersion, the machine of socio-cultural reproduction is no longer controled by centraliced agencies" therefore "Center and hierarchy give way to periphery and horizontality, creating a lateral expanse that extends endlesly in undefined directions" (TAYLOR, 1994:15). Others believe that from a technological perspective the scenario could lead to the development of more centralized controls of media and other information resources (DIZARD, 1994). What we can be certain about is that we are entering a stage of adaptation in which the old procedures of production, administration, distribution of information are being updated and adjusted to the new needs and the new uses created by industry. And that the “new” structure will remain partially undefined for several years. Moreover market forces and legal regulations will be important issues of discussion along with freedom of expression and ethical and moral implications of the new possibilities of communication.
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THIRD
PART
Are
television and computers merging?
“Thus an explosive
may be developed at the command or by the investment of a ruling class, or
by the investment or for the profit of an industrial enterprise, yet come
to be used by a revolutionary group against that ruling class…”
RAYMOND WILLIAMS
For
long time the future has been envisaged by many as an arcade of practical
and technical solutions for the human kind. In the actuality the development of digital technologies has opened the possibility
to believe in the fusion of traditional mediums of communication with computers
and the improvement of its characteristics and performance features by means
of its integration to broadband networks connected to a wider network. In
fact it is considered that the main virtue of digital technology is to create
an interface between different technological fields.
The
expansion of the World Wide Web and the creation of a virtual communication
context named cyberspace, are the direct consequence of the development of
technologies of communication initially fostered by the state and now capitalised by
multinational corporations. This
stage of transition undertaken by supporting corporations
of the technological convergence perspective, raises multiple questions of
different nature that come from various analytical positions, mainly from
scholars, intellectuals and critics of the technological determination. But
what is clear is the divergence of two trends of interpretation that somehow
make appear the issue quite reduced, but help to open the debate from a real
assessment. Whilst some see the advent of great revolutionary opportunities
of communication and the revival of alternative ideals of communication and
public participation, others boldly state that this “is a myth driven
by relentlessly optimistic media coverage” (DOVEY,
1996: xii) and that “we should make not mistake that this is indeed
what is emerging. The realm of the digital offers the media/finance/military
power bloc an opportunity to reorganise and consolidate power” (DOVEY,
1996: xii). And that electronic communication systems have already passed
trough significant major changes, and “the term ‘revolution’
is quite wrong to apply to the current situation” (WINSTON, 1998).
Transition
Despite
that the distribution and creation of digital information and the convergence
of transmission techniques are taking a prominent position in the market, traditional media will undergo a deep period of adaptation change that secures its power as mass media in the
immediate forth coming years. Some researchers believe that the condition
television has achieved during its history is perfectly defined and its
modes of consumption are tightly rooted to cultural parameters; adding that
“although traditional broadcast television faces a significant
challenge, it may yet be able to merge or “converge”
with computer controlled media without entirely loosing its identity”(DAVID,
2000 : 185) According to some "The transition has been slow in coming, early ventures
in the field having been bedeviled by inadequate technology and consumer resistance,
both of which are now being overcome" (DIZARD, 1994: 172) For the present time we could definitely state that such resistance to the change has been effectively eliminated by the first mass generations
of computer-literate users that adapted to the fast and frantic evolution
that television, cable and telephony passed through during the last decade,
but there are still millions whose ignorance go beyond the
uses of oral language.
Some scholars believe that only the people that can afford digital technology
will be able to participate socially and that the market will focus
on targeting individuals in relation to its economic
capacity and access to information networks. (YAROSS, 1996).
The
dynamic of the market
One
question that stands out of the convergence of television and Internet is
which apparatus will fulfil the needs of the system and the needs of market
(the corporate interests) simultaneously:
The television or the computer?
Will television displace the computer or the other way round? Will
we see the emergence of a hybrid that compresses both technologies? Is predictable
that in the transition the popularity of internet set- top boxes for the television
will increase considering that television is widely spread all over the
world and in all social sectors. As Collins claims these systems are fundamentally
based on
the production of audio-visual messages and the change of transmission characteristics
of such messages signifies the need of the manufacture of devises that would
allow the proper decoding. (COLLINS, 1996) It is easy to understand that this
is just part of the logic of the market, and that the production of any kind
of device will trigger the dynamics of consumption inherent to its use. These transitions are expected to be based on
trial-and error testing in the market place, whilst organization, packaging
and distribution of information and entertainment products adapt to the new
economical and political patterns. (DIZARD, 1994). In between the merging of television and the computer
there are aspects associated with the benefits or drawbacks of each technology
and the essence of each. Television is been perceived as an alienating devise
that promotes passivity. whose success is based on the simplicity of its access.
because it requires no specific training ..and gives the sensation of unmediated
contact with reality. (WILLIAMS 1974). Whilst on the other side computers are
advertised on claims that enrich family life, enhance communications and strength friendship based on the “interactive”
discourse, but over all on the idea that computers are learning tools (SEITER,
1999) whose only shortcomings at the moment are still limited to the capacities of connection access and
the availability of software. For the corporate machine such problems will
be solved once the technology of broadband is set up in large scale. The dreams
of an interactive television system relay in these technologies, and is expected
to evolve in the next coming years. Although we are witnessing the massive
phenomena that some refer to as “reality TV” that might be the
model for the development of large popularity programs based in the participation
of the audience controlling the evolution of events in the programs. (Big
Brother, Survival, etc)
Commercial
expansion
From
a global scale companies like Microsoft are already establishing links and
partnerships with television network companies to extend its power to the
media. As the majority of homes have television these industries are investing
in the production of hardware that would convert the television in an Internet
browser. In fact television is being used as a universally accepted domestic
technology for the development of future technologies that will be related
to online connections with flexibility to share data with other electronic
devices. (SEITER, 1999). At the moment is very common to see that in television
commercials and programs refer the viewer to link up by means of the net.
In many cases these dynamics of communication are used to gain feedback and
to obtain audience information. Gene Jankowski mentions that there are two definite forms of television uses
and consumpion based on: 1 the needs to belong and 2 the need to be individual. The Agregation
dynamic that appeals masses of audiences and the Dissagregation dynamic that
is the result of the new technologies and aims for small audiences that share
comon interests. Some companies
have recognized the importance of these changes and have started acting in
consequence creating networks whose programming has all ready been aknoledged
as ‘narrowcasting’. (JANKOWSKI, 1994). This situation take us to the fact that
tergeting is becoming an important issue and as Seiter mentions, within the
research groups there is a growing
anxiety to measure and control web users, and to predict the development of some technologies
to convince sponsors to invest. (SEITER, 1999).
Future
television
The
evolution and the future of television in its early stages were initially
thought as to the improvement of the quality of reception and capability,
and aesthetically to the improvement of the quality of performance. From the
late 70 High definition TV was thought as a mere possibility of development,
which is nowadays already a fact, although it is believed to be just a transitory
experiment that wont have any scope due to the price and because it will become
obsolete once the digital system is introduced for massive consume.
The
introduction to television of digital technology it is being projected to allow the viewer to have wider
control over the programs. For instance, it is said that the user will be able to decide
the characteristics of the programs, the subject, the time and the features
of it. Television will be some sort of programmable filter that could be adjusted
to each person necessities and preferences, the future of this media will
be based on programming relying on the ability of the user to choose within
a wide variety of information. For example
in the United States some companies are busy creating television systems
that would carry up to 500 channels.
Some critics envision this task as a universal ‘wasteland’
“in which the advertising programming flourishes, prohibitive rate structures
make it difficult for non profit groups and small independent producers to
gain system access and consumers pay higher fees to obtain programming”(JACOBSON,
1996:147). Whilst these companies are claiming that the variety of programming
strengths the democratic apparatus and that the democratic benefits of network
diversity will bring surpasses the commercial aspect of television, it is
useful to remember that “
in the general rhetoric of the defence of capitalism, commercial broad casting
does not call itself commercial, let alone capitalist” (WILLIAMS, 1974:37).
Liberating
ideals?
Some believe and others celebrate that the merging of technologies will strength democratic processes and social participation. But as it has been proved by historical reality, the evolution of society towards “advanced” stages and political models like the neo-liberal have rendered the audience passive consumers whose influence is reduced to its capability to choose between media corporations (BARBROOK, 1995). Nevertheless “the excitements offered by all new media forms represent the utopian aspirations of the liberal oppositional movements of the west.” (DOVEY, 1996), which have dominated the technocratic tradition of communication expansion of late 20th and early 21th century.
One of the representative examples of the use of related television technologies for democratic uses and public participation was embodied in the video culture that emerged during the 70s. It appeared as an alternative to the models set by television passive viewing. Its creators wanted to subvert and challenge the commercial discourse of television seeking to articulate an individual and communal identity. Within few glorious utopic years these ideals diminished slowly. The camcorder culture faded as a authentic utopian model of technological revolution against the overwhelming development of television world production and the philisophical democracy of spectacle . Nowadays the idea of consumers-producers seem appealing in a context where the creation-communication tools are widely available. nevertheless this context appeares to have in equal or better proportion mechanism of control and surveillance... If we can be sure about something is that in a period of transition any representation that can have political significance will be articulated and institutionalized. (DOVEY, 1996)
Hypermedia Studies
Module: History of Convergence
Module Leader: Dr. Richard Barbrook
University of Westminster
Marco
Casado. Jun 2001
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Winston B (1998) Media Technology and Society: A history from the telegraph
to the internet, Routledge, London
-Audio Tape: Atkinson
C (1977) Ideology and consciousness: art and politics. Audio Arts. London
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